GIS is a digital mapping tool that links databases to maps, allowing for the creation of layers displaying information about particular locations. Since planning is concerned with physical land uses as well as socioeconomic and environmental factors, the ability to combine and overlay such information is of great importance to the profession. On a technical level, GIS utilises hardware (the computer), software (to provide functions for dealing with spatial information), data sources (GPS, databases, satellite imagery etc) and metadata (information about the accuracy of a data set). There are two data types associated with GIS:
Vector data- information about points, lines or polygons (trees, streets and building layouts for example)
Raster data- values assigned to cells to represent geographical features
How GIS Works Source: SEOS 2011
These components are then combined to allow for queries about a particular location, attribute, or both (known as a Boolean query).
GIS has already transformed urban planning practice, and is recognised as an important decision making tool for planners. It is likely in the future, as technology advances the capability of GIS will expand, providing planners with greater tools with which to make decisions. The development of 3D modelling is currently an area of great interest, and would be a very useful tool to help with the visualisation of potential developments.
"When we think about the future of metropolitan areas it is not useful to envision them as cities surrounded by a ring of suburbs... We have to begin thinking of cities as metropolitan regions, as a matrix of development that extends over wide areas and includes many centres" (Hack). This highlights the need for an integrated planning approach that focuses on metropolitan regions as a whole.
The article mentions the relationship between a growing emphasis on metropolitan regions and the traditional downtown. As metropolitan regions have expanded, clusters of urban amenities have emerged, often becoming home to services traditionally associated with center cities. Thus, the center city must offer something unique, and specialise in areas that it has comparative advantage (presence of landmarks for tourism). For example, planning decisions must aim to capitalise on unique aspects of the CBD like the Harbour to differentiate it from growing district centres like Parramatta.
The idea of governance and it's impacts on the development and implementation of regional plans is also mentioned. It is stated that plans need to encompass regions, but devolution of power to local governments, as they are closest to the community, is beneficial. This is easier said than done, particularly in Australia where there is a power and resource struggle between the State and Local Governments.
The article raises some interesting points about the neccessity of plans to consider metropolitan regions as a whole, which I think will only become more imperative in the face of climate change and population growth.
This week’s reading focuses on how to create a successful town based on the ideas of Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk- the founders of the Congress for New Urbanism. This idea of New Urbanism has been explored in previous blogs. In summary, it is one way of responding to the negative outcomes (externalities) associated with automobile based suburban sprawl through the promotion of a return to traditional urban design principles (mixed-use development, gridded streets, walkability,etc). One important point raised in the article is that of developing underutilised areas instead of greenfield development, in order to reduce environmental impacts of development. This idea surfaces in the Draft Canberra Spatial Plan, which aims to increase residential density in the town centres (like Tuggeranong) and along major transport corridors (like Erindale Drive). This links to the idea of a neighbourhood structure that is suited for public transport use that is mentioned in the article.
The importance of creating mixed-use developments (an idea synonymous with new urbanism, and advocated by Jane Jacobs) is emphasised as a way of limiting sprawl but also creating a vibrant community. Creating a balance between residential buildings and workplaces is one aspect of this, and again this is one of the goals outlined in the Draft Canberra Spatial Plan, which aims to increase the amount of people living and working in the same district by 10%.
Although the new urbanist approach of using traditional towns as inspiration can be viewed as idealistic and impractical, I think the aspects of the Draft Canberra Spatial Plan that correspond to the core ideas demonstrate that if the principles behind the movement are considered in the current context, they can be effectively used in current plans. Planning a town using New Urbanist ideas does not have to mean recreating 'old-style' towns (that look like the picture below), but simply using the principles to help address current social, economic and environmental problems.
Seaside, Florida
Source: Coastal Family Living 2011
This week's reading talks about the master plan and its importance in the planning process. Although there is no one definition or formulation of a master plan, they are generally non-statutory documents that act as a guide for future developments. Through the use of charts, diagrams, standards and policies, master plans provide a vision for the future of an area. The reading heavily emphasises the fact that master plans address physical land use planning. Although I think in the face of issues like climate change and changing population demographics; social, environmental and economic considerations are essential for the success of a master plan.
After looking at the Tuggeranong and Erindale Town Centres Draft Mater Plan, it seems that economic, environmental and social issues were raised in the consultation, and then taken into consideration when outlining physical land use measures.
Six of the main uses of a master plan are listed as:
1. A source of information
2. A program of correction
3. An estimate of the future
4. An indicator of goals
5. A technique for coordination
6. A device for stimulating public interest and responsibility
The author suggests that the perhaps the main purpose of the master plan is the mutual interaction between those making plans and those whom the plans impact. Through the preparation of a master plan the community can take an active role, particularly since a master plan is a vision of the future of a place, something that local residents, businesses and organisations are likely to have an interest in. If the stakeholders take part in the formulation of the master plan, it’s possible that subsequent planning documents will cause less disputes because they comply with the ideas outlined in the master plan that were guided by the community. Do you think this is a likely outcome?
The reading this week focuses on the idea of multiculturalism in Canada, although the ideas are particularly relevant to Australia, and how multiculturalism impacts the planning process. The article emphasises that planning for multiculturalism requires the planner to focus on social aspects and issues of equity and welfare rather than just physical elements. It reinforces the idea, and acts as an important reminder, that the planning process directly impacts on the wellbeing of people- something planners have been criticised for neglecting consider.
A recurring theme throughout the text is the importance of communicative planning in relation to multiculturalism. On a practical level, the planner must be sensitive to the needs of various groups and individuals and overcome challenges like language barriers. The case study of Kingsview Park in Toronto provides an example of a dispute regarding ethnic differences that was dealt with by reviewing security and management of the housing estate- not addressing the root cause of the problem. So it seems a communicative approach is important when dealing with multiculturalism to allow all parties to express their views, needs and concerns. Although, as mentioned previously, there are limitations associated with this approach. Namely the exclusion of certain groups from participation in the planning process (this is a particular threat where there may be groups with different language needs) and the occurrence of NIMBYISM.
Ethnic enclaves and the implication they have on planning decisions is mentioned, as well as some of the negatives and positives of such concentrations of certain ethnicities. Of course there are examples of enclaves that have had positive social and economic outcomes such as Leichardt in Sydney and those that have resulted in negative outcomes such as violence and gangs.
Chinatown, Sydney
Source: Wikipedia 2005
My question to you is, where is the line for a planner between accommodating the needs of different cultural groups and enforcing segregation?
As the title suggests, this week’s reading by Jane Jacobs heavily emphasises the importance creating places for people. At the time the article was written, major redevelopment projects were taking place, and Jacobs believed they were destined to take the life out of cities rather than revive them.
One of my favourite cities in Australia has always been Melbourne, and after reading this week’s article it’s evident that part of the appeal of the city can be attributed not only to the fantastic shopping opportunities (although this definitely helps) but the fact that it displays many of the characteristics outlined by Jacobs for creating a successful Downtown area. Whilst walking along a main street in Melbourne, it’s not uncommon to come across a laneway filled with people in cafes or boutiques. This creates an element of surprise as well as variety between large automobile focused streets and narrow pedestrian focused streets- two of the criteria Jacobs mentions for appealing pedestrian streets.
Jacobs also mentions the importance of having a focal point to act as a landmark and Federation Square is one such example. Although it may not be as awe inspiring as Time Square in New York, the post modernist architecture juxtaposed with the traditional Flinders Street Station and St Pauls Cathedral creates a unique atmosphere. The square also provides a meeting place in the city and is used for many major festivals and events.
Watching the cricket on the big screen in Federation Square
Source: An Insider's Guide to Melbourne 2011
Throughout the article Jacobs’ disapproval of the actions of planners at the time is apparent, and the validity of planning as a profession is questioned. However, I think the shift away from the view of planning as a purely physical exercise has resulted in much more people oriented planners that Jacob's would approve of. One example is Jan Gehl, a Danish Urban Design Consultant and Professor who is notorious for his work on creating enjoyable public spaces through focusing on the pedestrian. His view that "First life, then spaces, then buildings – the other way around never works" corresponds to Jacobs' ideas that it is the people not the buildings that make a city.
The following link is to an article that was posted on the Student Planners Page, that shows Jan Gehl enjoying the new deck chairs placed in Sydney Square- not only a fun idea, but also a way to create a vibrant and enjoyable public space for the people in the CBD . Perhaps similar initiatives could help liven up Canberra's CBD...
The focus of planning and planning theory has shifted significantly over time, and this week’s reading by Susan Fainstein discusses three recent models of planning known as the ‘Communicative Model’, the ‘New Urbanism’ and the ‘Just City’. Each of these models emerged as a response to negative outcomes (externalities) associated with existing styles of thought.
The Communicative Model This model sees the primary role of the planner as that of listening to the views of others and helping to reach consensus amongst stakeholders. The communicative model emerged as an alternative to the top-down approach associated with the view that planners are experts. One of the main shortcomings with this style of planning is that in order for no stakeholder group to dominate, those who are in positions that prevent them from participating in and having influence over the planning process (low socioeconomic status, level of education, etc) must be empowered- something easier said than done.
The Communicative Model- method more important than outcome
Source: Newsvbytes 2010
New Urbanism Unlike the Communicative model, New Urbanism focuses on the outcome rather than the planning method. The promotion of the planning outcomes, which emphasise a mixed-use philosophy and a strong sense of community, is a key component of this model. A major critisism of the movement is that the reliance on physical determinism renders it insufficient to address complex social and economic issues. However, the tangible nature of this planning model means that unlike the communicative model, the outcomes are clear and able to be implemented with ease.
New Urbanism- promotes a specific physical plan
Source: Bits of Knowledge for Change 2011
The Just City This model of planning theory is outlined in Susan Fainstein's book entitled 'The Just City', so it's not surprising that there is little critisism of it in the article. The Just City model is described as a response to inequality generated by capitalism, and promotes the idea of empowering the public and the pursuit of equity. Whilst this sounds ideal, the way in which this relates to planning at a practical level is not outlined.
The Just City- an ideology
Source: Dig a List 2010
The idea of the communicative model is appealing, however the discrepencies between ideas and implementation presents a problem. Whilst the actual planning content of New Urbanism may not be ideal, the method of promoting a particular idea has been successful and there are many supporters of the movement, making the implementation possible. So the question is raised, should planning focus primarily on methods and promoting ideologies, or should it focus on promoting specific physical outcomes? How do we find a balance between the two?
The end of WWII not only sparked great social and economic changes, but also changes to town planning theory and processes. In this week's reading, Nigel Taylor summarises these changes, and evaluates whether they can be defined as paradigm shifts (enduring world views) or not.
First Shift: Planners as Creative Designers to Scientific Analysts and Rational Decision Makers
Second Shift: Planners as Technical Experts to Managers and "Communicators"
Shift from Modernism to Postmodernism
A Modernist Building in Deakin ACT- simple and functional
Source: Google Maps 2011
A postmodernist Building- Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain- complexity and difference
Source: Innovative Buildings 2010
Since about the 1960's there has been a shift in western culture from modernism to postmodernism, and this has impacted the planning profession. The pictures above illustrate types of buildings common to each era, but also represent the shift in planning theory and processes. Jane Jacobs expressed desire for complexity within cities (a postmodernist view) in comparison to the likes of Ebenezer Howard and Le Corbusier who advocated for a simple (modernist) style.
Using Kuhn's definition of a paradigm shift, Taylor concludes that the shifts in planning are not classified as paradigm shifts because there has been a continuation of many elements instead of the complete overthrow of ideas. Although they may not be technically called paradigm shifts, the changes in urban and regional planning have been extensive. The profession has evolved from that of simply design oriented, to a complex, dynamic profession encompassing specific knowledge and skill across a range of areas as well as communication skills.
I think it's possible that further shifts in planning may be influenced by factors such as the information techonology boom, or the impending risk of climate change.
This weeks reading by Richard LeGates and Frederic Stout focuses on modernism and early urban planning, and explores the ideas of many people that have helped shape planning including: Frederick Olmsted, Ebenezer Howard, Daniel Burnham, Patrick Geddes, Lewis Mumford, Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright to name a few.
The video shows a clip from the 1939 Documentary The City, narrated by Lewis Mumford, an advocate of the benefits of urban and regional planning. The clip shows how the industrial revolution created a multitude of problems (overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, health problems) and ultimately how planning evolved from the need to address these problems.
The first movement that aimed to respond to these unsatisfactory conditions was The Parks Movement- which aimed to provide healthy outlets for the city's poor and working class in the congested cities. Central Park in New York, co-designed by Frederick Olmsted, is an example of the success of this movement. Originally designed to provide the expanding city with open space, the park today an iconic location integral to the lives of many New Yorkers.
People Enjoying Central Park
Source: CentralPark.com 2008
Expanding on the notion of planning as a means to improve health conditions, the Garden City Movement, pioneered by Ebenezer Howard, emerged.
Letchworth, Heartfordshire in 1903- The First Garden City
Source: Encyclopedia Britannica 2011
Garden City Plan- characterised by 6000 acre towns
surrounded by a green-belt. The movement aimed for
'slumless and 'smokeless' cities, unlike those during the
Industrial Revolution.
Source: Listverse 2010
The City Beautiful Movement began in the 1890's, which then gave way to the City Scientific Movement that focused more on function than asthetics. Edward Bassett worked on the idea of the Master Plan as a core document of city planning agencies, and in doing so led to beginning of the professionalisation of planning.
Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, although both had very different ideas, were part of the 'Utopian Modernism' idea.
Le Corbusier's Plan for Paris
Source: Sedulia's Quotations 2011
Frank Lloyd Wright's design of Broadacre City- with a minimum of one acre per person
This week's reading highlights how planning has changed greatly over time, and will no doubt continue to change as we face new challenges- climate change as one example. As an aspiring planner, it's inspiring to notice how the accomplishments of this early city planning still impact the lives of people today.
As a planner, it's important to have an understanding of how plans actually work, so that they can be effectively implemented. This week’s reading, by Lewis Hopkins provides an overview of the various components of plans.
Five different ways in which plans work are identified, they include: agendas, policies, visions, designs and strategies. A strategy is indentified as the most inclusive and therefore fundamental concept of plans because they take into account the future when making decisions in the present. This fits nicely with the idea of sustainability, which refers to development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. There has been much emphasis placed on the importance of striving for sustainability in recent times, in relation to the environment, economy and society. The use of plans with a strong strategy aspect could help achieve this goal.
Daniel Burnham's Visionary Plan of Chicago
Source: Local Ecologist 2009
Whilst there are five components of a plan, there are two main tools used to put plans into practice- investment and regulation. The term investment conjures up images of businesses and banks, but it is a key part of the planning process. Investment patterns impact where people choose to live, and are an important aspect of planning. If you think about why you chose to live where you did, chances are the presence of key infrastructure such as shops, schools and transport influenced the decision. Often we only realise the effects (whether positive or negative) that investment decisions have on society after they have occurred, so trying to estimate the impact of investment on behaviour patterns is important.
It’s all very well to have a plan that looks good on paper, but having criteria to evaluate whether plans work is essential. Assessing whether the plan achieved the intended purpose, was cost effective and whether it complied to external criteria such as ethics are all important to the evaluation process.
Often when I tell people that I’m studying Urban and Regional Planning, they’re not familiar with it and ask what it involves. This seemingly simple question can be difficult to answer because, as highlighted by this week’s reading, the planning profession is one that has undergone substantial change and encompasses an array of disciplines.
This week’s article investigates the meaning of the phrase ‘the art of planning’, in which art is defined as having three components: design, craft and presentation.
In the early stages of planning, around the 1930’s, knowledge was drawn from the design, engineering, law, social sciences and economics disciplines. There was little development made in terms of presentation- the profession involved creating plans on paper with little public interaction or consultation and planners were viewed as ‘neutral’. Planning in this period was influenced by the New Deal economic policy. In the 1960’s, the post war atmosphere impacted the profession, and planners were involved with the creation of many policies. Education in planning during this period expanded, with more than seventy universities offering the course. This trend continued into the 1980’s, With many professors from the social sciences field appointed, thus a strong focus on this aspect within the planning field. Currently planners are described as experts who combine design, craft and presentation aspects with knowledge from many disciplines, and who have an awareness of different value systems.
The planning profession has been shaped by the external environment, and will therefore continue to evolve and change. Continued development of the craft aspect of planning will help ensure the success and viability of the profession in the future. Planning practice overlaps with that of many other disciplines, so it is the unique skills and attributes of planner’s that distinguish it from these fields. The importance of the planning profession is paramount as it takes a triple bottom line approach, focusing on social, environmental and economic factors- a quality that will greatly help deal with the complex and multi faceted issues facing society today such as climate change.
Welcome to my Planning blog! As part of Urban and Regional Planning at UC, during second semester of first year, a blog on planning theory and process is created to share with the class and public. Each week topics from articles in The Urban and Regional Planning Reader will be explored. Enjoy!
